// Binary Multiplication Algorithm
// Simple Multiplication Hardware
// Streamlined Multiplication Hardware
// Booth Recoding for Higher-Radix and Signed Multiplication
// Binary Division Algorithm
// Division Hardware (Simple and Streamlined)
// "Real" Arithmetic Circuits
/// References
/// Binary Multiplication Algorithm
// :PH: 4.6
/// Long Hand Procedure Review
//
// Multiply 5 times 12 in binary:
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1100 Multiplier
// """"
// 0000
// 0000
// 0101
// 0101
// """""""
// 0111100 Product
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Simple Multiplication Hardware
// :PH: 4.6
/// Simple Multipliers
//
// Designed to show basic techniques, but are inefficient.
// Following sections show improved multipliers.
/// Multipliers in this section:
//
// Simple Unsigned Combinational Multiplier
// See :PH: Figure 4.25
// Multiplies using combinational logic only.
// Cost of n-bit multiplier: proportional to n^2.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier: time needed for n additions:
// Proportional to n.
//
// Simple Unsigned Multiplier
// Unlike combinational multiplier, uses a clock.
// Cost of n-bit multiplier:
// Proportional to n.
// Includes 5n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier:
// Product in n clocks.
// Clock period includes 2n-bit add.
// Uses more hardware than streamlined multipliers in next section.
// :Example:
//
// Simple Unsigned Combinational Multiplier
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.25
//
// This is a straightforward coding of the longhand multiplication
// technique.
module simple_combinational_mult(product,multiplier,multiplicand); //P
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
output product;
reg [31:0] product;
integer i;
always @( multiplier or multiplicand )
begin
product = 0;
for(i=0; i<16; i=i+1)
if( multiplier[i] == 1'b1 ) product = product + ( multiplicand << i );
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Simple Unsigned Multiplier
//
// Sequential multiplier. Handshaking signals are added to command
// multiplier to start and to indicate when finished. Registers are
// provided for shifted versions of the multiplier and multiplicand.
module simple_mult(product,ready,multiplier,multiplicand,start,clk); //P
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [15:0] multiplier_copy;
reg [31:0] multiplicand_copy;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = 0;
multiplicand_copy = { 16'd0, multiplicand };
multiplier_copy = multiplier;
end else if( bit ) begin
if( multiplier_copy[0] == 1'b1 ) product = product + multiplicand_copy;
multiplier_copy = multiplier_copy >> 1;
multiplicand_copy = multiplicand_copy << 1;
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Streamlined Multiplication Hardware
// :PH: 4.6
/// Streamlined Multipliers
//
// Uses less hardware than simple multiplier.
// Much slower than "real" multipliers.
/// Multipliers in this section:
//
// Streamlined Unsigned Multiplier
// See :PH: Figure 4.31
// Less register storage than simple multiplier.
// Cost of n-bit multiplier:
// Proportional to n.
// Includes 2n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier: (Same as simple.)
// Product in n clocks.
// Clock period includes a 2n-bit add.
//
// Streamlined Signed Multiplier
// Like previous multiplier, but handles signed numbers.
// A better signed multiplier covered later (using Booth recoding).
// Cost of n-bit multiplier:
// Proportional to n.
// Includes 3n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier:
// Product in n clocks.
// Clock period includes 2n-bit add.
// :Example:
//
// Streamlined Unsigned Multiplier
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.31
//
// Improvements:
//
// The product register also holds the multiplier.
// Only the product register is shifted.
// A register is not needed to hold the multiplicand.
// Wow, you save 2n bits! (To multiply n-bit numbers.)
module streamlined_mult(product,ready,multiplier,multiplicand,start,clk);
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier };
end else if( bit ) begin:A
reg lsb;
lsb = product[0];
product = product >> 1;
bit = bit - 1;
if( lsb ) product[31:15] = product[30:15] + multiplicand;
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Streamlined Signed Multiplier
//
// Multiplies absolute value of multiplier and multiplicand.
// Negates product if multiplier and multiplicand differ in sign.
// Otherwise similar to streamlined unsigned multiplier.
module streamlined_signed_mult(product,ready,multiplier,multiplicand,
start,clk);
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [15:0] abs_multiplicand;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier[15] ? -multiplier : multiplier };
abs_multiplicand = multiplicand[15] ? -multiplicand : multiplicand;
end else if( bit ) begin:A
reg lsb;
lsb = product[0];
product = product >> 1;
bit = bit - 1;
if( lsb ) product[31:15] = product[30:15] + abs_multiplicand;
if( !bit && multiplicand[15] ^ multiplier[15] ) product = -product;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Booth Recoding for Higher-Radix and Signed Multiplication
// :PH: 4.6 Only describes Radix-2 Booth Recoding
/// Basic Idea
//
// Rather than repeatedly adding either 0 or 1 times multiplicand,
// repeatedly add 0, 1, -1, 2, -2, etc. times the multiplicand.
//
/// Benefits
//
// Performs signed multiplication without having to first compute the
// absolute value of the multiplier and multiplicand.
//
// Improved performance (when radix higher than 2).
/// Multipliers Described Here
//
// Ordinary Radix-4 Unsigned Multiplier
// Presented for pedagogical reasons, Booth multipliers better.
// Twice as fast as earlier multipliers.
// Uses more hardware than Booth multipliers below.
//
// Booth Recoding Radix-4 Multiplier
// Multiplies signed numbers.
// Twice as fast as earlier multipliers.
//
// Booth Recoding Radix-2 Multiplier
// Multiplies signed numbers.
// Uses about the same amount of hardware than earlier signed multiplier.
/// Ordinary Radix-4 Multiplier Idea
//
// Review of Radix-2 Multiplication
//
// Multiply 5 times 12. Radix-2 multiplication (the usual way).
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1100 Multiplier
// """"
// 0000 0 x 0101
// 0000 0 x 0101
// 0101 1 x 0101
// 0101 1 x 0101
// """""""
// 0111100 Product
//
// Radix-4 Multiplication
// Let "a" denote the multiplicand and b denote the multiplier.
// Pre-compute 2a and 3a.
// Examine multiplier two bits at a time (rather than one bit at a time).
// Based on the value of those bits add 0, a, 2a, or 3a (shifted by
// the appropriate amount).
//
// Uses n/2 additions to multiply two n-bit numbers.
//
// Two Radix-4 Multiplication Examples
//
// Multiply 5 times 12. Radix-4 multiplication (the faster way).
//
// Precompute: 2a: 01010, 3a: 01111
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1100 Multiplier
// """"
// 00000 00 x 0101
// 01111 11 x 0101
// """""""
// 0111100 Product
//
// Multiply 5 times 9. Radix-4 multiplication (the faster way).
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1001 Multiplier
// """"
// 00101 01 x 0101
// 01010 10 x 0101
// """""""
// 0101101 Product
// Ordinary Radix-2^d Multiplier
//
// This is a generalization of the Radix-4 multiplier.
//
// Let "a" denote the multiplicand and b denote the multiplier.
// Pre-compute 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, ..., (2^d-1)a
// Examine multiplier d bits at a time.
// Let the value of those bits be v.
// Add v shifted by the appropriate amount.
//
// Uses n/d additions to multiply two n-bit numbers.
// :Example:
//
// A Radix-4 multiplier. Takes unsigned numbers.
module imult_ord_radix_4(prod,ready,multiplicand,multiplier,start,clk);
input [15:0] multiplicand, multiplier;
input start, clk;
output prod;
output ready;
reg [32:0] product;
wire [31:0] prod = product[31:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
reg [17:0] pp;
initial bit = 0;
wire [17:0] multiplicand_X_1 = {1'b0,multiplicand};
wire [17:0] multiplicand_X_2 = {multiplicand,1'b0};
wire [17:0] multiplicand_X_3 = multiplicand_X_2 + multiplicand_X_1;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 8;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier };
end else if( bit ) begin
case ( {product[1:0]} )
2'd0: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] };
2'd1: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] } + multiplicand_X_1;
2'd2: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] } + multiplicand_X_2;
2'd3: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] } + multiplicand_X_3;
endcase
product = { pp, product[15:2] };
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
/// Booth Recoding
//
// Goal: Reduce the number of pre-computed multiples of the multiplicand.
// Bonus: Handles signed numbers.
//
// Idea: Use something like carries.
//
// Why It's Called Recoding
// Numbers like 3 are recoded into 4-1, avoiding the need to deal with 3.
//
// Consider need to compute multiplicand_X_3 for radix-4 multiplier.
// Instead:
// Subtract multiplicand and add 4 times multiplicand.
// The subtraction is done in the "current" step.
// The addition is done in the "next" step.
// Multiply 5 times 3. Booth radix-4 multiplication.
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 0011 Multiplier
// """""""
// 1111011 -1 x 0101 Multiplier bits 11 -> -1 + 4 -> -1 now, +1 next step
// 00101 (00+1) x 0101 Multiplier bits 00 -> 0 (now) + 1 (from last step)
// """""""
// 0001111 Product
// The table below indicates:
//
// MB: Multiplier bits value.
// C: Carry bit (lostbit in modules) from previous step.
// x: Amount to multiply multiplicand by.
// c: Carry bit to next step.
//
// Radix-4 Booth Table
//
// MB C x c
// """""""""""""""""
// 00 0 0 + 0 0
// 00 1 1 + 0 0
// 01 0 1 + 0 0
// 01 1 2 + 0 0
// 10 0 -2 + 4 1
// 10 1 -1 + 4 1
// 11 0 -1 + 4 1
// 11 1 0 + 4 1
//
// For example above:
// Step 1: MB -> 11, C -> 0, lookup reveals x -> -1, c -> 1
// Step 2: MB -> 00, C -> 1, lookup reveals x -> 1, c -> 0
//
// Radix-2 Booth Table
//
// MB C x c
// """""""""""""""""
// 0 0 0 + 0 0
// 0 1 1 + 0 0
// 1 0 -1 + 2 1
// 1 1 0 + 2 1
// Note:
// The carry out is the same as the MSB of the multiplier bits examined.
// That's intentional, so that no special storage or computation is need
// for the carry.
//
// The carry out of the last step is not used.
//
// Construction of higher-radix tables is straightforward.
// :Example:
//
// A Booth radix-4 multiplier. This takes signed numbers.
module imult_Booth_radix_4(prod,ready,multiplicand,multiplier,start,clk); // P
input [15:0] multiplicand, multiplier;
input start, clk;
output prod;
output ready;
reg [32:0] product;
wire [31:0] prod = product[31:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
reg lostbit;
initial bit = 0;
wire [16:0] multsx = {multiplicand[15],multiplicand};
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 8;
product = { 17'd0, multiplier };
lostbit = 0;
end else if( bit ) begin:A
case ( {product[1:0],lostbit} )
3'b001: product[32:16] = product[32:16] + multsx;
3'b010: product[32:16] = product[32:16] + multsx;
3'b011: product[32:16] = product[32:16] + 2 * multiplicand;
3'b100: product[32:16] = product[32:16] - 2 * multiplicand;
3'b101: product[32:16] = product[32:16] - multsx;
3'b110: product[32:16] = product[32:16] - multsx;
endcase
lostbit = product[1];
product = { product[32], product[32], product[32:2] };
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Radix-2 Booth multiplier. Unlike signed multiplier, does not
// require time or hardware for taking absolute value of operands.
module imult_Booth(product,ready,multiplicand,multiplier,start,clk); // P
input [15:0] multiplicand, multiplier;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
reg lostbit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier };
lostbit = 0;
end else if( bit ) begin:A
case ( {product[0],lostbit} )
2'b01: product[31:16] = product[31:16] + multiplicand;
2'b10: product[31:16] = product[31:16] - multiplicand;
endcase
lostbit = product[0];
product = { product[31], product[31:1] };
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Binary Division Algorithm
// :PH: 4.7
// Binary Version of Longhand Division Technique
//
// 11 divided by 3:
//
// 11 (1011) is dividend.
// 3 (0011) is divider.
//
// """"""""
// 1011
// -0011
// """""""" 0 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011
// -0011
// """""""" 00 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011
// -0011
// """""""" 001 Difference is positive: use difference and put 1 in quotient.
// 0101
// -0011
// """""""" 0011 Difference is positive: use difference and put 1 in quotient.
// 10
//
// Quotient, 3 (0011); remainder 2 (10).
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Division Hardware (Simple and Streamlined)
// :PH: 4.7
/// Division Hardware
//
// Simple Divider
// See :PH: Figure 4.36
// A straightforward translation of binary division algorithm into hardware.
// Cost of n-bit divider:
// Proportional to n.
// Uses 5n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit divider:
// Quotient in n clock cycles.
//
// Streamlined Divider
// See :PH: Figure 4.41
// Less storage needed.
// Cost of n-bit divider:
// Proportional to n.
// Uses 2n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit divider:
// Quotient in n clock cycles.
// :Example:
//
// Simple divider.
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.36
module simple_divider(quotient,remainder,ready,dividend,divider,start,clk);
input [15:0] dividend,divider;
input start, clk;
output quotient,remainder;
output ready;
// """"""""
// 1011 <---- dividend_copy
// -0011 <---- divider_copy
// """""""" 0 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011 <---- dividend_copy
// -0011 <---- divider_copy
// """""""" 00 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011 <---- dividend_copy
// -0011 <---- divider_copy
// """""""" 001 Difference is positive: use difference and put 1 in quotient.
// quotient (numbers above)
reg [15:0] quotient;
reg [31:0] dividend_copy, divider_copy, diff;
wire [15:0] remainder = dividend_copy[15:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
quotient = 0;
dividend_copy = {16'd0,dividend};
divider_copy = {1'b0,divider,15'd0};
end else begin
diff = dividend_copy - divider_copy;
quotient = quotient << 1;
if( !diff[31] ) begin
dividend_copy = diff;
quotient[0] = 1'd1;
end
divider_copy = divider_copy >> 1;
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Streamlined divider.
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.41
//
// Uses less register storage than simple divider.
module streamlined_divider(quotient,remainder,ready,dividend,divider,start,clk);
input [15:0] dividend,divider;
input start, clk;
output quotient,remainder;
output ready;
reg [31:0] qr;
reg [16:0] diff;
//
// 0000 1011
// """"""""
// 1011 0001 0110 <- qr reg
// -0011 -0011 <- divider (never changes)
// """"""""
// 1011 0010 110o <- qr reg
// -0011 -0011
// """"""""
// 1011 0101 10oo <- qr reg
// -0011 -0011
// """""""" 0010 1000 <- qr reg before shift
// 0101 0101 0ooi <- after shift
// -0011 -0011
// """""""" 0010 ooii
// 10
//
// Quotient, 3 (0011); remainder 2 (10).
wire [15:0] remainder = qr[31:16];
wire [15:0] quotient = qr[15:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
qr = {16'd0,dividend};
end else begin
diff = qr[31:15] - {1'b0,divider};
if( diff[16] )
qr = {qr[30:0],1'd0};
else
qr = {diff[15:0],qr[14:0],1'd1};
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// "Real" Arithmetic Circuits
// :HP: Appendix A
/// Adders
//
// Multiple-level CLA covered in class reasonably close to adders used
// in processors.
//
// Other fast adder techniques also used. (See :PH: problems.)
/// Multipliers
//
// The multiplication hardware presented above is much slower than
// the hardware used in real processors.
//
// "Real" n-bit Multiplier Features
//
// Multiplication done in one or two cycles (assume one cycle).
// Uses higher-radix (say 4) Booth recoding or something similar.
// Enough adders are provided so that product computed in one cycle.
// These adders can add n numbers quickly without the cost of n CLA's.
// Cost may be something like 3/2 n ripple adders plus 1 CLA.
// Delay through each adder is only a handful of gates.
// Adders may be connected as a tree, so that number of adders
// from input to output is proportional to log n (rather than n).
/// Dividers
//
// The division hardware presented above is slower than hardware used
// in real processors.
//
// Division trickier than multiplication because result of step i
// needed for i+1. This precludes the tree structures used in
// fast multipliers.
//
// FP Dividers in general-purpose processors typically take 10-20 cycles.
//
// Several division techniques used. Examples:
// SRT: Sweeney, Robertson, Tocher
// Newton Iteration
// Goldschmidt's Algorithm
x
// Simple Multiplication Hardware
// Streamlined Multiplication Hardware
// Booth Recoding for Higher-Radix and Signed Multiplication
// Binary Division Algorithm
// Division Hardware (Simple and Streamlined)
// "Real" Arithmetic Circuits
/// References
/// Binary Multiplication Algorithm
// :PH: 4.6
/// Long Hand Procedure Review
//
// Multiply 5 times 12 in binary:
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1100 Multiplier
// """"
// 0000
// 0000
// 0101
// 0101
// """""""
// 0111100 Product
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Simple Multiplication Hardware
// :PH: 4.6
/// Simple Multipliers
//
// Designed to show basic techniques, but are inefficient.
// Following sections show improved multipliers.
/// Multipliers in this section:
//
// Simple Unsigned Combinational Multiplier
// See :PH: Figure 4.25
// Multiplies using combinational logic only.
// Cost of n-bit multiplier: proportional to n^2.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier: time needed for n additions:
// Proportional to n.
//
// Simple Unsigned Multiplier
// Unlike combinational multiplier, uses a clock.
// Cost of n-bit multiplier:
// Proportional to n.
// Includes 5n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier:
// Product in n clocks.
// Clock period includes 2n-bit add.
// Uses more hardware than streamlined multipliers in next section.
// :Example:
//
// Simple Unsigned Combinational Multiplier
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.25
//
// This is a straightforward coding of the longhand multiplication
// technique.
module simple_combinational_mult(product,multiplier,multiplicand); //P
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
output product;
reg [31:0] product;
integer i;
always @( multiplier or multiplicand )
begin
product = 0;
for(i=0; i<16; i=i+1)
if( multiplier[i] == 1'b1 ) product = product + ( multiplicand << i );
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Simple Unsigned Multiplier
//
// Sequential multiplier. Handshaking signals are added to command
// multiplier to start and to indicate when finished. Registers are
// provided for shifted versions of the multiplier and multiplicand.
module simple_mult(product,ready,multiplier,multiplicand,start,clk); //P
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [15:0] multiplier_copy;
reg [31:0] multiplicand_copy;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = 0;
multiplicand_copy = { 16'd0, multiplicand };
multiplier_copy = multiplier;
end else if( bit ) begin
if( multiplier_copy[0] == 1'b1 ) product = product + multiplicand_copy;
multiplier_copy = multiplier_copy >> 1;
multiplicand_copy = multiplicand_copy << 1;
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Streamlined Multiplication Hardware
// :PH: 4.6
/// Streamlined Multipliers
//
// Uses less hardware than simple multiplier.
// Much slower than "real" multipliers.
/// Multipliers in this section:
//
// Streamlined Unsigned Multiplier
// See :PH: Figure 4.31
// Less register storage than simple multiplier.
// Cost of n-bit multiplier:
// Proportional to n.
// Includes 2n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier: (Same as simple.)
// Product in n clocks.
// Clock period includes a 2n-bit add.
//
// Streamlined Signed Multiplier
// Like previous multiplier, but handles signed numbers.
// A better signed multiplier covered later (using Booth recoding).
// Cost of n-bit multiplier:
// Proportional to n.
// Includes 3n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit multiplier:
// Product in n clocks.
// Clock period includes 2n-bit add.
// :Example:
//
// Streamlined Unsigned Multiplier
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.31
//
// Improvements:
//
// The product register also holds the multiplier.
// Only the product register is shifted.
// A register is not needed to hold the multiplicand.
// Wow, you save 2n bits! (To multiply n-bit numbers.)
module streamlined_mult(product,ready,multiplier,multiplicand,start,clk);
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier };
end else if( bit ) begin:A
reg lsb;
lsb = product[0];
product = product >> 1;
bit = bit - 1;
if( lsb ) product[31:15] = product[30:15] + multiplicand;
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Streamlined Signed Multiplier
//
// Multiplies absolute value of multiplier and multiplicand.
// Negates product if multiplier and multiplicand differ in sign.
// Otherwise similar to streamlined unsigned multiplier.
module streamlined_signed_mult(product,ready,multiplier,multiplicand,
start,clk);
input [15:0] multiplier, multiplicand;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [15:0] abs_multiplicand;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier[15] ? -multiplier : multiplier };
abs_multiplicand = multiplicand[15] ? -multiplicand : multiplicand;
end else if( bit ) begin:A
reg lsb;
lsb = product[0];
product = product >> 1;
bit = bit - 1;
if( lsb ) product[31:15] = product[30:15] + abs_multiplicand;
if( !bit && multiplicand[15] ^ multiplier[15] ) product = -product;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Booth Recoding for Higher-Radix and Signed Multiplication
// :PH: 4.6 Only describes Radix-2 Booth Recoding
/// Basic Idea
//
// Rather than repeatedly adding either 0 or 1 times multiplicand,
// repeatedly add 0, 1, -1, 2, -2, etc. times the multiplicand.
//
/// Benefits
//
// Performs signed multiplication without having to first compute the
// absolute value of the multiplier and multiplicand.
//
// Improved performance (when radix higher than 2).
/// Multipliers Described Here
//
// Ordinary Radix-4 Unsigned Multiplier
// Presented for pedagogical reasons, Booth multipliers better.
// Twice as fast as earlier multipliers.
// Uses more hardware than Booth multipliers below.
//
// Booth Recoding Radix-4 Multiplier
// Multiplies signed numbers.
// Twice as fast as earlier multipliers.
//
// Booth Recoding Radix-2 Multiplier
// Multiplies signed numbers.
// Uses about the same amount of hardware than earlier signed multiplier.
/// Ordinary Radix-4 Multiplier Idea
//
// Review of Radix-2 Multiplication
//
// Multiply 5 times 12. Radix-2 multiplication (the usual way).
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1100 Multiplier
// """"
// 0000 0 x 0101
// 0000 0 x 0101
// 0101 1 x 0101
// 0101 1 x 0101
// """""""
// 0111100 Product
//
// Radix-4 Multiplication
// Let "a" denote the multiplicand and b denote the multiplier.
// Pre-compute 2a and 3a.
// Examine multiplier two bits at a time (rather than one bit at a time).
// Based on the value of those bits add 0, a, 2a, or 3a (shifted by
// the appropriate amount).
//
// Uses n/2 additions to multiply two n-bit numbers.
//
// Two Radix-4 Multiplication Examples
//
// Multiply 5 times 12. Radix-4 multiplication (the faster way).
//
// Precompute: 2a: 01010, 3a: 01111
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1100 Multiplier
// """"
// 00000 00 x 0101
// 01111 11 x 0101
// """""""
// 0111100 Product
//
// Multiply 5 times 9. Radix-4 multiplication (the faster way).
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 1001 Multiplier
// """"
// 00101 01 x 0101
// 01010 10 x 0101
// """""""
// 0101101 Product
// Ordinary Radix-2^d Multiplier
//
// This is a generalization of the Radix-4 multiplier.
//
// Let "a" denote the multiplicand and b denote the multiplier.
// Pre-compute 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, ..., (2^d-1)a
// Examine multiplier d bits at a time.
// Let the value of those bits be v.
// Add v shifted by the appropriate amount.
//
// Uses n/d additions to multiply two n-bit numbers.
// :Example:
//
// A Radix-4 multiplier. Takes unsigned numbers.
module imult_ord_radix_4(prod,ready,multiplicand,multiplier,start,clk);
input [15:0] multiplicand, multiplier;
input start, clk;
output prod;
output ready;
reg [32:0] product;
wire [31:0] prod = product[31:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
reg [17:0] pp;
initial bit = 0;
wire [17:0] multiplicand_X_1 = {1'b0,multiplicand};
wire [17:0] multiplicand_X_2 = {multiplicand,1'b0};
wire [17:0] multiplicand_X_3 = multiplicand_X_2 + multiplicand_X_1;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 8;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier };
end else if( bit ) begin
case ( {product[1:0]} )
2'd0: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] };
2'd1: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] } + multiplicand_X_1;
2'd2: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] } + multiplicand_X_2;
2'd3: pp = {2'b0, product[31:16] } + multiplicand_X_3;
endcase
product = { pp, product[15:2] };
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
/// Booth Recoding
//
// Goal: Reduce the number of pre-computed multiples of the multiplicand.
// Bonus: Handles signed numbers.
//
// Idea: Use something like carries.
//
// Why It's Called Recoding
// Numbers like 3 are recoded into 4-1, avoiding the need to deal with 3.
//
// Consider need to compute multiplicand_X_3 for radix-4 multiplier.
// Instead:
// Subtract multiplicand and add 4 times multiplicand.
// The subtraction is done in the "current" step.
// The addition is done in the "next" step.
// Multiply 5 times 3. Booth radix-4 multiplication.
//
// 0101 Multiplicand
// 0011 Multiplier
// """""""
// 1111011 -1 x 0101 Multiplier bits 11 -> -1 + 4 -> -1 now, +1 next step
// 00101 (00+1) x 0101 Multiplier bits 00 -> 0 (now) + 1 (from last step)
// """""""
// 0001111 Product
// The table below indicates:
//
// MB: Multiplier bits value.
// C: Carry bit (lostbit in modules) from previous step.
// x: Amount to multiply multiplicand by.
// c: Carry bit to next step.
//
// Radix-4 Booth Table
//
// MB C x c
// """""""""""""""""
// 00 0 0 + 0 0
// 00 1 1 + 0 0
// 01 0 1 + 0 0
// 01 1 2 + 0 0
// 10 0 -2 + 4 1
// 10 1 -1 + 4 1
// 11 0 -1 + 4 1
// 11 1 0 + 4 1
//
// For example above:
// Step 1: MB -> 11, C -> 0, lookup reveals x -> -1, c -> 1
// Step 2: MB -> 00, C -> 1, lookup reveals x -> 1, c -> 0
//
// Radix-2 Booth Table
//
// MB C x c
// """""""""""""""""
// 0 0 0 + 0 0
// 0 1 1 + 0 0
// 1 0 -1 + 2 1
// 1 1 0 + 2 1
// Note:
// The carry out is the same as the MSB of the multiplier bits examined.
// That's intentional, so that no special storage or computation is need
// for the carry.
//
// The carry out of the last step is not used.
//
// Construction of higher-radix tables is straightforward.
// :Example:
//
// A Booth radix-4 multiplier. This takes signed numbers.
module imult_Booth_radix_4(prod,ready,multiplicand,multiplier,start,clk); // P
input [15:0] multiplicand, multiplier;
input start, clk;
output prod;
output ready;
reg [32:0] product;
wire [31:0] prod = product[31:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
reg lostbit;
initial bit = 0;
wire [16:0] multsx = {multiplicand[15],multiplicand};
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 8;
product = { 17'd0, multiplier };
lostbit = 0;
end else if( bit ) begin:A
case ( {product[1:0],lostbit} )
3'b001: product[32:16] = product[32:16] + multsx;
3'b010: product[32:16] = product[32:16] + multsx;
3'b011: product[32:16] = product[32:16] + 2 * multiplicand;
3'b100: product[32:16] = product[32:16] - 2 * multiplicand;
3'b101: product[32:16] = product[32:16] - multsx;
3'b110: product[32:16] = product[32:16] - multsx;
endcase
lostbit = product[1];
product = { product[32], product[32], product[32:2] };
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Radix-2 Booth multiplier. Unlike signed multiplier, does not
// require time or hardware for taking absolute value of operands.
module imult_Booth(product,ready,multiplicand,multiplier,start,clk); // P
input [15:0] multiplicand, multiplier;
input start, clk;
output product;
output ready;
reg [31:0] product;
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
reg lostbit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
product = { 16'd0, multiplier };
lostbit = 0;
end else if( bit ) begin:A
case ( {product[0],lostbit} )
2'b01: product[31:16] = product[31:16] + multiplicand;
2'b10: product[31:16] = product[31:16] - multiplicand;
endcase
lostbit = product[0];
product = { product[31], product[31:1] };
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Binary Division Algorithm
// :PH: 4.7
// Binary Version of Longhand Division Technique
//
// 11 divided by 3:
//
// 11 (1011) is dividend.
// 3 (0011) is divider.
//
// """"""""
// 1011
// -0011
// """""""" 0 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011
// -0011
// """""""" 00 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011
// -0011
// """""""" 001 Difference is positive: use difference and put 1 in quotient.
// 0101
// -0011
// """""""" 0011 Difference is positive: use difference and put 1 in quotient.
// 10
//
// Quotient, 3 (0011); remainder 2 (10).
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// Division Hardware (Simple and Streamlined)
// :PH: 4.7
/// Division Hardware
//
// Simple Divider
// See :PH: Figure 4.36
// A straightforward translation of binary division algorithm into hardware.
// Cost of n-bit divider:
// Proportional to n.
// Uses 5n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit divider:
// Quotient in n clock cycles.
//
// Streamlined Divider
// See :PH: Figure 4.41
// Less storage needed.
// Cost of n-bit divider:
// Proportional to n.
// Uses 2n bits of register storage.
// Speed of n-bit divider:
// Quotient in n clock cycles.
// :Example:
//
// Simple divider.
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.36
module simple_divider(quotient,remainder,ready,dividend,divider,start,clk);
input [15:0] dividend,divider;
input start, clk;
output quotient,remainder;
output ready;
// """"""""
// 1011 <---- dividend_copy
// -0011 <---- divider_copy
// """""""" 0 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011 <---- dividend_copy
// -0011 <---- divider_copy
// """""""" 00 Difference is negative: copy dividend and put 0 in quotient.
// 1011 <---- dividend_copy
// -0011 <---- divider_copy
// """""""" 001 Difference is positive: use difference and put 1 in quotient.
// quotient (numbers above)
reg [15:0] quotient;
reg [31:0] dividend_copy, divider_copy, diff;
wire [15:0] remainder = dividend_copy[15:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
quotient = 0;
dividend_copy = {16'd0,dividend};
divider_copy = {1'b0,divider,15'd0};
end else begin
diff = dividend_copy - divider_copy;
quotient = quotient << 1;
if( !diff[31] ) begin
dividend_copy = diff;
quotient[0] = 1'd1;
end
divider_copy = divider_copy >> 1;
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
// :Example:
//
// Streamlined divider.
// Based on :PH: Figure 4.41
//
// Uses less register storage than simple divider.
module streamlined_divider(quotient,remainder,ready,dividend,divider,start,clk);
input [15:0] dividend,divider;
input start, clk;
output quotient,remainder;
output ready;
reg [31:0] qr;
reg [16:0] diff;
//
// 0000 1011
// """"""""
// 1011 0001 0110 <- qr reg
// -0011 -0011 <- divider (never changes)
// """"""""
// 1011 0010 110o <- qr reg
// -0011 -0011
// """"""""
// 1011 0101 10oo <- qr reg
// -0011 -0011
// """""""" 0010 1000 <- qr reg before shift
// 0101 0101 0ooi <- after shift
// -0011 -0011
// """""""" 0010 ooii
// 10
//
// Quotient, 3 (0011); remainder 2 (10).
wire [15:0] remainder = qr[31:16];
wire [15:0] quotient = qr[15:0];
reg [4:0] bit;
wire ready = !bit;
initial bit = 0;
always @( posedge clk )
if( ready && start ) begin
bit = 16;
qr = {16'd0,dividend};
end else begin
diff = qr[31:15] - {1'b0,divider};
if( diff[16] )
qr = {qr[30:0],1'd0};
else
qr = {diff[15:0],qr[14:0],1'd1};
bit = bit - 1;
end
endmodule
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// "Real" Arithmetic Circuits
// :HP: Appendix A
/// Adders
//
// Multiple-level CLA covered in class reasonably close to adders used
// in processors.
//
// Other fast adder techniques also used. (See :PH: problems.)
/// Multipliers
//
// The multiplication hardware presented above is much slower than
// the hardware used in real processors.
//
// "Real" n-bit Multiplier Features
//
// Multiplication done in one or two cycles (assume one cycle).
// Uses higher-radix (say 4) Booth recoding or something similar.
// Enough adders are provided so that product computed in one cycle.
// These adders can add n numbers quickly without the cost of n CLA's.
// Cost may be something like 3/2 n ripple adders plus 1 CLA.
// Delay through each adder is only a handful of gates.
// Adders may be connected as a tree, so that number of adders
// from input to output is proportional to log n (rather than n).
/// Dividers
//
// The division hardware presented above is slower than hardware used
// in real processors.
//
// Division trickier than multiplication because result of step i
// needed for i+1. This precludes the tree structures used in
// fast multipliers.
//
// FP Dividers in general-purpose processors typically take 10-20 cycles.
//
// Several division techniques used. Examples:
// SRT: Sweeney, Robertson, Tocher
// Newton Iteration
// Goldschmidt's Algorithm
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